The Major’s Response – Cover Artists:
Despite rock ‘n’ roll’s widespread success across America, the major record labels were initially mostly uninterested in this new phenomenon. Indeed, until 1955, the independent labels had a “virtual monopoly” on rock ‘n’ roll artists1. They were the leaders in the rhythm and blues market, and when rock ‘n’ roll took off they simply had to: “modify the arrangements, simplify the beat, and promote rhythm and blues as rock ‘n’ roll.2”
The major labels’ disinterest can be attributed to several factors. According to Charlie Gillett, one reason was that: “there does appear to have been a general feeling among the executives of the majors that rock ‘n’ roll was a rather shoddy music, associated with ill-educated southerners who were difficult to patronize.3” This was certainly a popular opinion in some circles; Frank Sinatra testified before Congress in 1958 that rock ‘n’ roll was: “the most brutal, ugly, desperate, vicious form of expression it has been my misfortune to hear.4” Another reason for their disinterest may have been the fact that a standard contract with a major label was for five years. Such a long contract meant that a performer had to have long lasting universal appeal to be cost effective. This favored crooner-style pop artists, because “Rock ‘n’ roll singers, who seemed to be flash-in-the-pan novelties with only one style, promised to be redundant before a couple of years were up.5”
The major labels could not however ignore rock ‘n’ roll for long; they were rapidly losing their market share to independent labels. For instance, of the 51 records to reach the top ten in 1955, 11 were released by independent labels. This number nearly doubled the following year (19 out of 55 in 1956) and again the year after (40 out of 70 in 1957.6)
Therefore, the major record labels began encouraging some of their performers to record covers of rock ‘n’ roll songs. These “cover artists” were usually young and not so well known as pop or country singers, so it was relatively easy to change their “sound” and image7. These cover artists frequently “cleaned up” the original lyrics. For instance, the 1954 rhythm and blues hit originally recorded by Hank Ballard and the Midnighters featured the following lyrics: “Work with me Annie [four times] Let’s get it while the gitting[sic] is good.8” When Georgia Gibbs recorded a cover of this song with Mercury, it became: “Dance with me, Henry [four times] Let’s dance while the music rolls on.9”
These cover artists were enormously successful. According to Robert G. Pielke: “The white airwaves were filled with this kind of material. […] Black music had to be judged ‘safe’ before it could be played10.” For instance, Georgia Gibbs’ adaptation of Lavern Baker’s “Tweedle Dee”, Gale Storm’s version of Smiley Lewis’ “I Hear You Knocking” and Perry Como’s cover of Gene and Eunice’s “Ko Ko Mo” were all very lucrative hits which made far more than the originals. Some of Bill Haley and the Comets biggest hits were covers: Jackie Brenson’s “Rocket 88”, Sunny Dae’s “Rock Around The Clock” and Joe Turner’s “Shake, Rattle, and Roll11.” However, the most popular and influential cover artist of the fifties was undoubtedly Pat Boone.
Originally a radio host for Nashville station WSIX, Boone signed with Dot records in 195512. While Dot was an independent label, president Randy Wood had seen the growing demand for rock ‘n’ roll in the white market13. He therefore decided to restyle the crooner style singer into a rock ‘n’ roller, despite the fact that Boone confessed to having little interest in the genre. His first hit, a cover of Fats Domino’s “Ain’t That A Shame”, made its first appearance at #14 on the pop charts as the original hit the top spot in the rhythm and blues charts14. He quickly followed suit with successive cover hits: “‘At My Front Door’ by the El Dorados, Big Joe Turner’s ‘Honey Hush’, ‘Tutti Frutti’ and ‘Long Tall Sally’ by Little Richard, the Flamingos’ ‘I’ll Be Home’, and Ivory Joe Hunter’s ‘I Almost Lost My Mind.15’”
What is most significant about Pat Boone is not his personal success, but rather the artists which became famous because of him. As Boone himself contended: “R & B is a distinctive style of music; it doesn’t appeal to everybody […] So if it hadn’t been for the vanilla versions of the R & B songs in the 50s, you could certainly imagine that rock ‘n’ roll, as we think of it, would never have happened.16” Indeed, artists such as Little Richard and Fats Domino went on to become breakthrough artists successful in both charts. For instance, in 1956, Little Richard’s original version of “Tutti Frutti” debuted on the pop charts above covers by both Pat Boone and Elvis Presley17. Likewise, Fats Domino’s 1956 hit “Blueberry Hill” reached #4 on the pop charts18. As Charlie Gillett put it: “The audience was determined to have the real thing, not a synthetic version of the original.19” Therefore, cover versions unwittingly allowed genuine rock ‘n’ roll artists to cross over to popular music fame.
Conclusion:
In the early fifties, music, like most everything in America, was highly segregated. Artists, disc jockeys, radio stations, and music charts were all clearly aimed at either a white or a black audience. The line of segregation was nearly impossible to cross.
However, the booming postwar American economy brought about subtle cultural changes. The teenage age group rapidly became a target for marketing due to their substantial disposable income and credit purchasing power. Portable radios and affordable record players meant that, for the first time, young people were free to experiment with their own personal taste. For a relatively small segment of the young population, this taste meant rhythm and blues.
While white teenagers were enjoying the dance beats and rougher style of rhythm and blues, disc jockeys such as Alan Freed took note. Radio programs on 50,000 watt channels, such as “Moondog’s Rock ‘n’ Roll Party”, helped introduce larger audiences to African American music. White teenagers across the country were buying rock ‘n’ roll records, and the independent record labels were reaping the benefits. As Charlie Gillett put it: “The mostly slow and unsympathetic response of the major companies to rock ‘n’ roll enabled independent companies to dictate the fate of music.20”
By the mid-fifties, the major record labels finally responded to the rock ‘n’ roll trends by promoting their artists with cover versions of rhythm and blues hits. This decision eventually allowed African American artists to truly cross over to white audiences. Thanks to covers of their songs, artists such as Little Richard, Fats Domino and Chuck Berry became pop sensations.
Rock ‘n’ roll music helped improve race relations in postwar America by bringing the people of both races together. White and black people were now often listening to the same artists, buying the same records and dancing in the same clubs. While segregation was still an important part of American society through the fifties and beyond, rock ‘n’ roll acted as a medium which linked the two races.
Afterword:
Due to a word limit and the time constraints of being a student, I was unable to pursue two topics that I feel would have added a lot to this discussion: the rise of Elvis Presley, undoubtably the most popular white rock ‘n’ roller of the 50’s, and the 1959 payola scandal, which all but killed rock ‘n’ roll until its revival in Britain in the mid 60’s.
I hope you have enjoyed my Rockin’ The Boat series. If you are interested in a PDF compilation, I plan on making a fancy version with LaTeX this summer.
April 22nd, 2008 at 9:22 pm
…I grew up during these times, I remember it somewhat diferently. Olivia Newton John, John Denver, Three Dog Night, thats me.